BANKING
Definition
According to Law Decree No. 10 of 1998 dated 10 November 1998 on the banks, it can be concluded that the banking business includes three activities, namely raise funds, distribute funds, and provides banking services lainnya.Kegiatan raise and channel funds be an activity while the main bank provides services to other banks only support activities. Events raise funds, in the form of raising funds from the public in the form of demand deposits, savings and time deposits. Usually he is given an attractive fringe benefits such as, flowers and gifts as a stimulus for the community. Events raise funds, the provision of loans to the public. While other banking services provided to support the main activity tersebut.bank founded by prof. Dr. Ali Afifuddin, SE In my opinion, the bank is a tool that allows people to save money activity, in terms of commerce, as well as for future investment. The world of banking is one institution that plays an important role in the economy of a country (particularly in financing the economy). Here are some benefits of banking in the life:
1. As an investment model, which means that derivative transactions can be used as one model of investing. Although in general is kind of short-term investments (yield enhancement). 2. As a way of hedging, which means that derivative transactions can serve as one way to eliminate risk by hedging (hedging), or also known as risk management. 3. Price information, which means, derivatives transactions can serve as a means of seeking or providing information about the prices of certain commodities in the future (price discovery). 4. Function speculative, which means, derivatives may provide an opportunity speculation (speculative) to changes in market value of derivative transaction itself. 5. Production management functions work well and efficiently, which means that derivative transactions can give an idea to a manufacturer of production management in assessing the demand and market needs in the future. Apart from funsi-banking functions (bank) that the primary or its derivatives, hence the need to be considered for the banking world, is the philosophical purpose of the existence of banks in Indonesia. This is clearly reflected in Article four (4) of Act No. 10 of 1998 which explains, "Bank Indonesia aims to support the implementation of national development in order to improve equity, economic growth and national stability towards improving the welfare of the people." Deeper review of the business of banks, the banks (banking) of Indonesia in conducting its business must be based on the principle of economic democracy, which uses the precautionary principle hatian.4 This, clearly illustrated, because philosophically the bank has the function of macro and micro to the process of nation-building .
Banking History
Origin of Banking
The Bank was first established in the form of such a firm in general in 1690, when the British empire-willed plan to rebuild the fleet marine force to compete with the French naval forces but the British government when it does not have the financial capability and then based on the idea that later William Paterson by Charles Montagu realized by forming a financial intermediary which ultimately can meet these financing funds in just twelve days.
History records the origin of banking activities are familiar in the days of the past empire in mainland Europe. Then the banking business has grown into West Asia by the merchants. The development of banking in Asia, Africa and the Americas brought by Europeans during the colonial colonies to countries in Asia, Africa and the Americas. When traced, the history of banking familiar starting from currency exchange services. So in banking history, meaning the bank is known as a table of the exchange. In the course of the history of empire in the first exchange between the kingdom of the money made that one moved at the other kingdom. Exchange activity is now known as the Foreign Exchange Traders (Money Changer). Then in the next, more developed banking operations into daycare money or so-called current deposit activity. Next banking activities increased with moneylending activities. The money saved by the people, by the banks loaned back to the society needs it. Other bank services followed in accordance with the times and the needs of an increasingly diverse society.
History of Banking in Indonesia
Indonesia's banking history is inseparable from the Dutch East Indies colonial era. At that time De Javasche Bank NV was founded in Batavia on January 24, 1828 and then followed Escompto Nederlandsche Indische Maatschappij, NV in 1918 as the holder of the monopoly purchase of agricultural products in domestic and overseas sales and there are some banks that play an important role in Indian Netherlands. The banks are, among others:
1. De Javasce NV.
2. De Post Poar Bank.
3. Hulp en Spaar Bank.
4. De Algemenevolks Crediet Bank.
5. Nederland handles Maatscappi (NHM).
6. Handles Nationale Bank (NHB).
7. De Escompto Bank NV.
8. Nederlansche Indische Handelsbank
In addition, there are also banks belonging to Indonesia and foreigners such as from China, Japan, and Europe. These banks include:
1. NV. Nederlandsch Indische Spaar En Bank Deposit
2. National Bank Indonesia.
3. Gray Merchant Bank.
4. Boemi Bank NV.
5. The Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China
6. Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation
7. The Yokohama Species Bank.
8. The Matsui Bank.
9. The Bank of China.
10. Bank Batavia.
In an age of independence, Indonesia's banking developed and developing countries grow again. Several Dutch banks dinasionalisir by the Indonesian government. The banks in the early days of independence, among others:
1. NV. Nederlandsch Indische Spaar En Deposit Bank (now Bank OCBCNISP), founded 4 April 1941 with headquarters in Bandung
2. Bank Negara Indonesia, established on July 5, 1946 which is now known as the BNI '46.
3. Bank Rakyat Indonesia, which was established on February 22, 1946. This bank was derived from De Algemenevolks Crediet Bank or Syomin Ginko.
4. Bank of Surakarta Airlines Adil Makmur (MAI) in 1945 in Solo.
5. Bank Indonesia in Palembang in 1946.
6. Bank Dagang Nasional Indonesia in 1946 in Medan.
7. Indonesian Banking Corporation in 1947 in Yogyakarta, and then became Bank Amrita.
8. Bank NV in Manado, Sulawesi in 1946.
9. Indonesian Trade Bank NV in Samarinda in 1950 was merged with the Pacific Bank.
10. East Bank NV in Semarang changed its name to Bank enjoy doing. Then the merger with Bank Central Asia (BCA) in 1949.
In Indonesia, banking practice has spread to the corners of the financial pedesaan.Lembaga shaped banks in Indonesia in the form of commercial banks, rural banks (BPR), Commercial Bank of Sharia, and also RB Sharia (SRB). Each bank institutions is a different shape characteristics and functions.
Struggling Bank Doctrine
Government Bank
Through the Minister of Finance Decree No. 1/M/61 dated January 6, 1961 which prohibits the announcement and publication of statistical figures monetary / banking, then between the years 1960 to 1965, Bank Indonesia does not publish annual reports, including statistical data on the central clearing, and calculations.
On July 5, 1964, on the basis of political considerations to simplify the command in the banking sector to support the Universe Development Planning, then in 1965 the government established a policy to integrate all the state banks into one bank under the name Bank Negara Indonesia, Bank integration initiatives of this government derived from the idea Jusuf Muda Dalam, who was then serving as Minister of the Central Bank / Governor of Bank Indonesia - the newly appointed from the original position of President Director of BNI - and approved by President Sukarno. The basic idea is to make banking as a tool of revolution with the motto Berdjoang Bank under the leadership of Great Leader of the Revolution. Name of Bank Negara Indonesia (BNI) as a single bank, proposed by Joseph Young in itself. The result was the birth of a new structure makes Berdjoang Bank;
Bank Indonesia to Bank Negara Indonesia Unit I;
Farmers and Fishermen Cooperative Bank and the Bank Eczema Indonesia became Bank Negara Indonesia Unit II;
Bank Negara Indonesia to Bank Negara Indonesia Unit III;
State Commercial Bank became Bank Negara Indonesia Unit IV and
State Savings Bank became Bank Negara Indonesia Unit V.
But not all government bank successfully integrated into the Bank Berdjoang namely Bank Dagang Negara (BDN) and Bapindo. BDN being let loose from the integration process is mainly due to the President Director of BDN JD Massie was appointed as Minister of the Control of National Private Banks which would have had enough influence to object to the unification BDN with other banks. Massie argued that this policy will confuse overseas correspondent banks for the settlement of L / C exports and imports for the name of the same bank. Meanwhile, Bapindo not integrated into the Bank Struggling because this bank under the Development Council chaired by the First Minister of Development Affairs with members of the Finance Minister, who is also Chairman of the Board of Trustees Bapindo, and Governor of Bank Indonesia as anggota.Dengan Thus, through his position, the effect Bapindo strong enough to deter integrated into the BNI.
Private Bank
In 1965 the government wants combines all private banks or foreign banks in Private Development Bank as the only bank collector and distributor of all progressive funds in the private sector and the tools that can be used Universe Development Plan and other plans specified by the President of the Republic of Indonesia.
History of State Bank
As we know that Indonesia is familiar with the banking world from the former colonialist, the Netherlands. Therefore, history can not be separated from the influence perbankanpun countries menjajahnya good for government banks and private banks. In 1958, the government nationalized the Dutch-owned bank began with Handelsbank Nationale (NHB) in 1959 which subsequently changed to the State Commercial Banks (BUNEG later became Bank Bumi Daya), then in 1960 consecutive Escomptobank into Bank Dagang Negara (BDN) and Nederlandsche Handelsmaatschappij (NHM) to Farmers and Fishermen Cooperative Bank (BKTN) and later became Bank Expor Impor Indonesia (BEII).
The following will be explained briefly the history of government-owned banks, namely:
• Central Bank
Central Bank of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia (BI) based on Law No. 13 of 1968. Then asserted again moved at Law No. 23 of this 1999.Bank previously derived from De Javasche Bank in nasionalkan in 1951.
• Bank Rakyat Indonesia and Bank Expor Import
This bank was derived from De Algemene Volkscrediet Bank, then the melting after becoming the single bank called Bank Nasional Indonesia (BNI), Unit II, which is engaged in rural and export import (exim), separated again into:
1. In charge of rural as Bank Rakyat Indonesia with Law No. 21 of 1968.
2. In charge of Exim with the Law No. 22 of 1968 as Bank Expor Impor Indonesia.
• Bank Negara Indonesia (BNI '46)
The bank underwent BNI Unit III with Law No 17 of 1968 turned into Bank Negara Indonesia '46.
• Bank Dagang Negara (BDN)
BDN derived from Escompto Bank in nasionalisasikan with PP No 13 of 1960, but the PP (Government Regulation) is repealed by replaced by Law No 18 of 1968 as Bank Dagang Negara. BDN is the only bank outside Government yangberada Bank Negara Indonesia Unit.
• Bank Bumi Daya (BBD)
BBD originally derived from the Nederlandsch Indische Hendles Bank, then became Hendles Nationale Bank, the bank later became Bank Negara Indonesia Unit IV and based on Law No. 19 of 1968 as Bank Bumi Daya.
• Development Bank of Indonesia (Bapindo)
• Regional Development Banks (BPD)
This bank was established in the regions level I. The legal basis is Law No. 13 of 1962.
• State Savings Bank (BTN)
BTN, comes from De Post Paar Bank which later became the Postal Savings Bank in 1950. Next to Bank Negara Indonesia Unit V and finally became the State Savings Bank with Law No. 20 of 1968.
• Bank Mandiri
Bank Mandiri is the result of the merger of Bank Bumi Daya (BBD), Bank Dagang Negara (BDN), Bank Indonesia Development (Bapindo) and Bank Expor Impor Indonesia (Bank Exim). The result of the four bank mergers was conducted in 1999.
The purpose of banking services
Bank service is very important in a country's economic development. Banking services are generally divided into two goals. First, as the provider payment mechanism and an efficient tool for the customer. For this, the bank provides cash, savings, and credit cards. This is the most important role of banks in economic life. Without the provision of efficient payment instruments, then goods can only be traded by way of barter that takes time.
Second, by accepting savings from customers and lend it to those who need funds, meaning the bank to increase the flow of funds for investment and better utilization produktif.Bila this role goes well, the economy of a country will menngkat. Without the flow of these funds, the money just stay in the pocket of someone, people can not get a business loan and can not be built because they do not have the loan fund.
Banking services are actually very much, just that very few people who know. The purpose and benefits are very good for our customers. But many who use them for criminal acts, such as ATM burglary and forgery of books and other savings.
Holders of the Company gains Big Ten Banks Based on Year 2003 (In U.S. Dollars)
1. Citigroup - 20 billion
2. Bank of America - 15 billion
3. HSBC - 10 billion
4. Royal Bank of Scotland - 8 billion
5. Wells Fargo - 7 billion
6. JPMorgan Chase - 7 billion
7. UBS AG - 6 billion
8. Wachovia - 5 billion
9. Morgan Stanley - 5 billion
10. Merrill Lynch - 4 billion
The types of banks and their functions
Three main groups of financial institutions - commercial banks, savings institutions and credit unions - which are also called storage institution because most of the funds came from customer deposits. Commercial banks are the largest group of institutions when measured by the amount of storage assets. They perform functions similar to savings institutions and credit unions, namely, accepting deposits (liabilities) and makes loans (However, they differ in the composition of assets and liabilities, which are much more variable).
Comparison of concentration of bank's asset size, indicates that bank consolidation seems to have reduced the smallest share of bank assets (assets under $ 1 billion). These banks - with assets under $ 1 billion - tend to specialize in retail or consumer banking, such as providing housing mortgages, consumer loans and deposit locally. While the bank's assets are relatively large (with assets of more than $ 1 billion), consisting of two classes are regional or super regional bank. They are involved in wholesale more complex about komersialperbankan activities, including consumer credit and housing as well as commercial and industrial loans (D & I Lending), both regionally and nationally. In addition, banks - big banks have access to buy the fund (fund) - such as inter-bank funds or government funds (federal funds) - to finance their lending and investment activities. However, some very large banks have a different title, namely the Central Bank Currently, five banking organizations form a group of Central Banks, namely: Bank of New York, Deutsche Bank (through acquisitions bankers trust each other), Citigroup, JP Morgan, and HSBC Bank in the United States. However, the numbers have been declining due to megamergers. It is important to note that, assets or loans not always an indicator of a bank is the central bank. But, a combination of site and dependence on the source nondeposit or loan funds.
Services - banking services
Services - services are provided to support the raise and distribute funds, either directly related to savings and credit activities and indirectly. Other banking services are as follows:
• deposit services such as electricity deposits, telephone, water, or tuition
• payment services such as payment of salary, pension, or gift
• Service remittances (transfers)
• Billing Services (collection)
• Clearing
• Sales of foreign currency
• Storage of documents
• Service Desk check
• Credit Card
• Services - services that exist in the stock market like loan issuance and securities traders.
• Services Letter of Credit (L / C)
• Bank guarantees and bank references
• Services of other banks.
Monday, January 3, 2011
MODAL AUXILIARY
MODAL AUXILIARY
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
• As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
• I shall go now.
• He had won the election.
• They did write that novel together.
• I am going now.
• He was winning the election.
• They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
• "Shall we go now?"
• "Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
• The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
• The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
• You really shouldn't do that.
• If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
• I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
• I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
• I don't study at night.
• She doesn't work here anymore.
• Do you attend this school?
• Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
• Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
• Did your grandmother know Truman?
• Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
• My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
• My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
• Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
• Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
b. To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e. To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
f. To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
• Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
• The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own. Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
• As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
• As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
• To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
• For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
• It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
• He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
• I have to have a car like that!
• She has to pay her own tuition at college.
• He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
• to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
• to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
• to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
• to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
• to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
• to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
• to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework? Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
• May I leave class early?
• If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
• She might be my advisor next semester.
• She may be my advisor next semester.
• She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
• I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
• We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on and prediction:
• specific: The meeting will be over soon.
• timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
• habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
• Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
• Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
• customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
• typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
• My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
• We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
• Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
• It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
• The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
• I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
• As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
• I shall go now.
• He had won the election.
• They did write that novel together.
• I am going now.
• He was winning the election.
• They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
• "Shall we go now?"
• "Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
• The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
• The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
• You really shouldn't do that.
• If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
• I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
• I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
• I don't study at night.
• She doesn't work here anymore.
• Do you attend this school?
• Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
• Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
• Did your grandmother know Truman?
• Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
• My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
• My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
• Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
• Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
b. To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e. To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
f. To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
• Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
• The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own. Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
• As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
• As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
• To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
• For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
• It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
• He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
• I have to have a car like that!
• She has to pay her own tuition at college.
• He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
• to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
• to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
• to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
• to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
• to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
• to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
• to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework? Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
• May I leave class early?
• If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
• She might be my advisor next semester.
• She may be my advisor next semester.
• She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
• I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
• We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on and prediction:
• specific: The meeting will be over soon.
• timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
• habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
• Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
• Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
• customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
• typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
• My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
• We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
• Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
• It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
• The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
• I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
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